Constitutional changes, 1909–1935

Between 1909 and 1935, British constitutional reform in India moved in reluctant steps from nominated councils to a federal scheme with provincial autonomy, without ever conceding responsible government at the centre. The Morley-Minto Reforms, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and the Government of India Act of 1935 form the spine of this story. Each reform responded to Indian pressure — and each disappointed nationalists because it preserved ultimate British control. The concrete test is dyarchy: Indians ran some provincial departments while the governor kept the rest.