Pastoralism, Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases

Before cities, there were herders and farmers. Pastoralism, the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic together describe the long shift from hunting and gathering to food production, settled villages and the first use of metal alongside stone. At Mehrgarh, for example, early farming, herding and craft production appear in successive layers long before the mature Harappan phase. Understanding this sequence explains why the Indus civilisation did not appear suddenly, but grew out of village cultures.